Branches of Psychology

Tuesday, November 30, 2010

There are a number of unique and distinctive branches of psychology. Each branch looks at questions and problems from a different perspective. While each branch has its own focus on psychological problems or concerns, all areas share a common goal of studying and explaining human thought and behavior. The following are some of the major branches of psychology within the field today.

1. Abnormal Psychology

Abnormal psychology is the area that looks at psychopathology and abnormal behavior. The term covers a broad range of disorders, from depression to obsession-compulsion to sexual deviation and many more. Counselors, clinical psychologists and psychotherapists often work directly in this field.
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2. Behavioral Psychology

Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. While this branch of psychology dominated the field during the first part of the twentieth century, it became less prominent during the 1950s. However, behavioral techniques remain a mainstay in therapy, education and many other areas.

3. Biopsychology

The branch of psychology focused on the study of how the brain influences behavior is often known as biopsychology, although it has also been called physiological psychology, behavioral neuroscience and psychobiology.

4. Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking and attention. This area of psychology has continued to grow since it emerged in the 1960s.

5. Comparative Psychology

Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal behavior. The study of animal behavior can lead to a deeper and broader understanding of human psychology.

6. Developmental Psychology

This branch of psychology looks at development throughout the lifespan, from childhood to adulthood. The scientific study of human development seeks to understand and explain how and why people change throughout life. This includes all aspects of human growth, including physical, emotional, intellectual, social, perceptual and personality development. Topics studied in this field include everything from prenatal development to Alzheimer's disease.

7. Educational Psychology

Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with schools, teaching psychology, educational issues and student concerns. Educational psychologists often study how students learn or work directly with students, parents, teachers and administrators to improve student outcomes.

8. Experimental Psychology

Experimental psychology is the branch of psychology that utilizes scientific methods to research the brain and behavior. Many of these techniques are also used by other areas in psychology to conduct research on everything from childhood development to social issues.
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9. Forensic Psychology

Forensic psychology is a specialty area that deals with issues related to psychology and the law. Forensic psychologists perform a wide variety of duties, including providing testimony in court cases, assessing children in suspected child abuse cases, preparing children to give testimony and evaluating the mental competence of criminal suspects.

10. Personality Psychology

This branch of psychology is focused on the patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make a person unique. Some of the best-known theories in psychology have arisen from this field, including Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality and Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.

11. Social Psychology

Social psychology seeks to explain and understand social behavior and looks at diverse topics including group behavior, social interactions, leadership, nonverbal communication and social influences on decision-making.

test on Pyschology

Wrong
Negative reinforcement increases the strength or frequency of a response by __________ an aversive stimulus.


a) Increasing


b) Decreasing


c) Removing


d) Ignoring

Your answer is wrong! The correct answer is "c". ( more information )

2
Wrong
An employee receives a reward every 45 minutes. What type of reinforcement schedule is being used?


a) Variable Ratio Schedule


b) Fixed Ratio Schedule


c) Variable Interval Schedule


d) Fixed Interval Schedule

Your answer is wrong! The correct answer is "d". ( more information )

3
Correct
What is a reinforcer?


a) Any event that strengthens or increases a response.


b) Something the individual finds pleasant.


c) Anything that decreases a response.


d) An incentive.

Good Job! The correct answer is "a". ( more info )

4
Correct
While Ivan Pavlov is famous for his contributions to psychology, he was actually a:


a) Linguist


b) Physiologist


c) Zoologist


d) Botanist

Good Job! The correct answer is "b". ( more info )

5
Wrong
Which of B.F. Skinner's schedules of reinforcement is the most difficult to extinguish? (Hint: Gambling utilizes this reinforcement schedule).


a) Variable Interval


b) Variable Ratio


c) Fixed Interval


d) Fixed Ratio

Your answer is wrong! The correct answer is "b". ( more information )

6
Correct
What learning process did B.F. Skinner describe?


a) Classical Conditioning


b) Operant Conditioning


c) Modeling


d) Observational Learning

Good Job! The correct answer is "b". ( more info )

7
Correct
The sudden reappearance of a response after a period of extinction is known as:


a) Stimulus generalization


b) Extinction


c) Stimulus discrimination


d) Spontaneous recovery

Good Job! The correct answer is "d". ( more info )

8
Wrong
Innate reinforcers such as food and water that diminish a biological need are known as:


a) Primary Reinforcers


b) Secondary Reinforcers

Your answer is wrong! The correct answer is "a". ( more information )

9
Wrong
What is a punishment?


a) An unpleasant event or stimulus.


b) Any undesired event or stimulus that weakens or decreases a behavior.


c) A disagreeable consequence.


d) Something the individual dislikes.

Your answer is wrong! The correct answer is "b". ( more information )

10
Correct
This learning procedure utilizes reinforcement to guide a response in closer and closer approximations to a desired behavior:


a) Shaping


b) Observational Learning


c) Partial Reinforcement


d) Conditioning

Good Job! The correct answer is "a". ( more info )

11
Correct
Which of the following is true of learning?


a) Learning is relatively permanent.


b) Learning involves a change in behavior.


c) Learning occurs through experience.


d) All of the above

Good Job! The correct answer is "d". ( more info )

12
Wrong
In Pavlov’s classic experiment with dogs, the food was the:


a) Unconditioned Stimulus


b) Unconditioned Response


c) Conditioned Stimulus


d) Conditioned Response

Your answer is wrong! The correct answer is "a". ( more information )

13
Correct
In classical conditioning, the natural and unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is known as the:


a) Unconditioned Stimulus


b) Unconditioned Response


c) Conditioned Stimulus


d) Conditioned Response

Good Job! The correct answer is "b". ( more info )

14
Wrong
In John Watson’s famous experiment, Little Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat, but he also demonstrated a fear of other furry, white objects. This is an example of:


a) Phobic behavior


b) Stimulus discrimination


c) Stimulus generalization


d) Superstitious behavior

Your answer is wrong! The correct answer is "c". ( more information )

15
Correct
Who is famous for saying, “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.”


a) B.F. Skinner


b) Ivan Pavlov


c) Edward Thorndike


d) John Watson

Good Job! The correct answer is "d". ( more info )

Your Score: You got 8 right out of 15 questions, for a score of 53 percent.

You did poorly

The Cranial Nerves

Thursday, November 25, 2010

Cranial Nerves

The cranial nerves are 12 pairs of nerves that can be seen on the ventral (bottom) surface of the brain. Some of these nerves bring information from the sense organs to the brain; other cranial nerves control muscles; other cranial nerves are connected to glands or internal organs such as the heart and lungs.

Cranial Nerves
NumberNameFunctionLocation
IOlfactory NerveSmell
IIOptic NerveVision
IIIOculomotor NerveEye movement; pupil constriction
IVTrochlear NerveEye movement
VTrigeminal NerveSomatosensory information (touch, pain) from the face and head; muscles for chewing.
VIAbducens NerveEye movement
VIIFacial NerveTaste (anterior 2/3 of tongue); somatosensory information from ear; controls muscles used in facial expression.
VIIIVestibulocochlear NerveHearing; balance
IXGlossopharyngeal NerveTaste (posterior 1/3 of tongue); Somatosensory information from tongue, tonsil, pharynx; controls some muscles used in swallowing.
XVagus NerveSensory, motor and autonomic functions of viscera (glands, digestion, heart rate)
XISpinal Accessory NerveControls muscles used in head movement.
XIIHypoglossal NerveControls muscles of tongue
Note: the olfactory "nerve" is composed of the rootlets of olfactory hair cells in the nasal mucosa and is not visible on the ventral surface of the brain. The rootlets end in the olfactory bulb. The olfactory tract contains nerve fibers projecting out of the olfactory bulb to the brain.
The images in this table have been adapted from those in the Slice of Life project.


Hear IT!
Olfactory Optic Oculomotor Trochlear
Trigeminal Abducens Facial Vestibulocochlear
Glossopharyngeal Vagus Spinal Accessory Hypoglossal
Can't remember the names of the cranial nerves? Here is a handy-dandy mnemonic for you: On Old Olympus Towering Top A Famous Vocal German Viewed Some Hops.
The bold letters stand for:
olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens, facial, vestibulocochlear, glossopharyngeal, vagus, spinal accessory, hypoglossal.
Still can't remember the cranial nerves? Perhaps you need some Cranial Nerve Bookmarks to help you study! After you print the bookmarks, cut them into three individual bookmarks and use them to mark your place when you study.

Autonomic Nervous System

The Autonomic Nervous System
flight vis The organs (the "viscera") of our body, such as the heart, stomach and intestines, are regulated by a part of the nervous system called the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The ANS is part of the peripheral nervous system and it controls many organs and muscles within the body. In most situations, we are unaware of the workings of the ANS because it functions in an involuntary, reflexive manner. For example, we do not notice when blood vessels change size or when our heart beats faster. However, some people can be trained to control some functions of the ANS such as heart rate or blood pressure. The ANS is most important in two situations:
  1. In emergencies that cause stress and require us to
    "fight" or take "flight" (run away) and
  2. In nonemergencies that allow us to "rest" and "digest.".

The ANS regulates:
    vis
  • Muscles
    • in the skin (around hair follicles; smooth muscle)
    • around blood vessels (smooth muscle)
    • in the eye (the iris; smooth muscle)
    • in the stomach, intestines and bladder (smooth muscle)
    • of the heart (cardiac muscle)
  • Glands
The ANS is divided into three parts:

  • The sympathetic nervous system
  • The parasympathetic nervous system
  • The enteric nervous system.

The Sympathetic Nervous System
It is a nice, sunny day...you are taking a nice walk in the park. Suddenly, an angry bear appears in your path. Do you stay and fight OR do you turn and run away? These are "Fight or Flight" responses. In these types of situations, your sympathetic nervous system is called into action - it uses energy - your blood pressure increases, your heart beats faster, and digestion slows down. Notice in the picture on the left that the sympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord. Specifically, the cell bodies of the first neuron (the preganglionic neuron) are located in the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord. Axons from these neurons project to a chain of ganglia located near the spinal cord. In most cases, this neuron makes a synapse with another neuron (post-ganglionic neuron) in the ganglion. A few preganglionic neurons go to other ganglia outside of the sympathetic chain and synapse there. The post-ganglionic neuron then projects to the "target" - either a muscle or a gland.
Two more facts about the sympathetic nervous system: the synapse in the sympathetic ganglion uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter; the synapse of the post-ganglionic neuron with the target organ uses the neurotransmitter called norepinephrine. (Of course, there is one exception: the sympathetic post-ganglionic neuron that terminates on the sweat glands uses acetylcholine.)

--------------------------------------------

The Parasympathetic Nervous System
It is a nice, sunny day...you are taking a nice walk in the park. This time, however, you decide to relax in comfortable chair that you have brought along. This calls for "Rest and Digest" responses. Now is the time for the parasympathetic nervous to work to save energy - your blood pressure decreases, your heart beats slower, and digestion can start. Notice in the picture on the left, that the cell bodies of the parasympathetic nervous system are located in the spinal cord (sacral region) and in the medulla. In the medulla, the cranial nerves III, VII, IX and X form the preganglionic parasympathetic fibers. The preganglionic fiber from the medulla or spinal cord projects to ganglia very close to the target organ and makes a synapse. This synapse uses the neurotransmitter called acetylcholine. From this ganglion, the post-ganglionic neuron projects to the target organ and uses acetylcholine again at its terminal.
Here is a summary of some of the effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation. Notice that effects are generally in opposition to each other.

The Autonomic Nervous System
StructureSympathetic StimulationParasympathetic Stimulation
Iris (eye muscle)Pupil dilationPupil constriction
Salivary GlandsSaliva production reducedSaliva production increased
Oral/Nasal MucosaMucus production reducedMucus production increased
HeartHeart rate and force increasedHeart rate and force decreased
LungBronchial muscle relaxedBronchial muscle contracted
StomachPeristalsis reducedGastric juice secreted; motility increased
Small IntestineMotility reducedDigestion increased
Large IntestineMotility reducedSecretions and motility increased
LiverIncreased conversion of
glycogen to glucose
KidneyDecreased urine secretionIncreased urine secretion
Adrenal medullaNorepinephrine and
epinephrine secreted
BladderWall relaxed
Sphincter closed
Wall contracted
Sphincter relaxed



It should be noted that the autonomic nervous system is always working. It is NOT only active during "fight or flight" or "rest and digest" situations. Rather, the autonomic nervous system acts to maintain normal internal functions and works with the somatic nervous system. The enteric nervous system is a third division of the autonomic nervous system that you do not hear much about. The enteric nervous system is a meshwork of nerve fibers that innervate the viscera (gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and gall bladder).